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 <!DOCTYPE html>
 <html>
 <head>
 <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="doc.css" />
 <title>Leveldb file layout and compactions</title>
 </head>

 <body>

 <h1>Files</h1>

 The implementation of leveldb is similar in spirit to the
 representation of a single
 <a href="http://research.google.com/archive/bigtable.html">
 Bigtable tablet (section 5.3)</a>.
 However the organization of the files that make up the representation
 is somewhat different and is explained below.

 <p>
 Each database is represented by a set of files stored in a directory.
 There are several different types of files as documented below:
 <p>
 <h2>Log files</h2>
 <p>
 A log file (*.log) stores a sequence of recent updates.  Each update
 is appended to the current log file.  When the log file reaches a
 pre-determined size (approximately 4MB by default), it is converted
 to a sorted table (see below) and a new log file is created for future
 updates.
 <p>
 A copy of the current log file is kept in an in-memory structure (the
 <code>memtable</code>).  This copy is consulted on every read so that read
 operations reflect all logged updates.
 <p>
 <h2>Sorted tables</h2>
 <p>
 A sorted table (*.sst) stores a sequence of entries sorted by key.
 Each entry is either a value for the key, or a deletion marker for the
 key.  (Deletion markers are kept around to hide obsolete values
 present in older sorted tables).
 <p>
 The set of sorted tables are organized into a sequence of levels.  The
 sorted table generated from a log file is placed in a special <code>young</code>
 level (also called level-0).  When the number of young files exceeds a
 certain threshold (currently four), all of the young files are merged
 together with all of the overlapping level-1 files to produce a
 sequence of new level-1 files (we create a new level-1 file for every
 2MB of data.)
 <p>
 Files in the young level may contain overlapping keys.  However files
 in other levels have distinct non-overlapping key ranges.  Consider
 level number L where L >= 1.  When the combined size of files in
 level-L exceeds (10^L) MB (i.e., 10MB for level-1, 100MB for level-2,
 ...), one file in level-L, and all of the overlapping files in
 level-(L+1) are merged to form a set of new files for level-(L+1).
 These merges have the effect of gradually migrating new updates from
 the young level to the largest level using only bulk reads and writes
 (i.e., minimizing expensive seeks).

 <h2>Manifest</h2>
 <p>
 A MANIFEST file lists the set of sorted tables that make up each
 level, the corresponding key ranges, and other important metadata.
 A new MANIFEST file (with a new number embedded in the file name)
 is created whenever the database is reopened.  The MANIFEST file is
 formatted as a log, and changes made to the serving state (as files
 are added or removed) are appended to this log.
 <p>
 <h2>Current</h2>
 <p>
 CURRENT is a simple text file that contains the name of the latest
 MANIFEST file.
 <p>
 <h2>Info logs</h2>
 <p>
 Informational messages are printed to files named LOG and LOG.old.
 <p>
 <h2>Others</h2>
 <p>
 Other files used for miscellaneous purposes may also be present
 (LOCK, *.dbtmp).

 <h1>Level 0</h1>
 When the log file grows above a certain size (1MB by default):
 <ul>
 <li>Create a brand new memtable and log file and direct future updates here
 <li>In the background:
 <ul>
 <li>Write the contents of the previous memtable to an sstable
 <li>Discard the memtable
 <li>Delete the old log file and the old memtable
 <li>Add the new sstable to the young (level-0) level.
 </ul>
 </ul>

 <h1>Compactions</h1>

 <p>
 When the size of level L exceeds its limit, we compact it in a
 background thread.  The compaction picks a file from level L and all
 overlapping files from the next level L+1.  Note that if a level-L
 file overlaps only part of a level-(L+1) file, the entire file at
 level-(L+1) is used as an input to the compaction and will be
 discarded after the compaction.  Aside: because level-0 is special
 (files in it may overlap each other), we treat compactions from
 level-0 to level-1 specially: a level-0 compaction may pick more than
 one level-0 file in case some of these files overlap each other.

 <p>
 A compaction merges the contents of the picked files to produce a
 sequence of level-(L+1) files.  We switch to producing a new
 level-(L+1) file after the current output file has reached the target
 file size (2MB).  We also switch to a new output file when the key
 range of the current output file has grown enough to overlap more than
 ten level-(L+2) files.  This last rule ensures that a later compaction
 of a level-(L+1) file will not pick up too much data from level-(L+2).

 <p>
 The old files are discarded and the new files are added to the serving
 state.

 <p>
 Compactions for a particular level rotate through the key space.  In
 more detail, for each level L, we remember the ending key of the last
 compaction at level L.  The next compaction for level L will pick the
 first file that starts after this key (wrapping around to the
 beginning of the key space if there is no such file).

 <p>
 Compactions drop overwritten values.  They also drop deletion markers
 if there are no higher numbered levels that contain a file whose range
 overlaps the current key.

 <h2>Timing</h2>

 Level-0 compactions will read up to four 1MB files from level-0, and
 at worst all the level-1 files (10MB).  I.e., we will read 14MB and
 write 14MB.

 <p>
 Other than the special level-0 compactions, we will pick one 2MB file
 from level L.  In the worst case, this will overlap ~ 12 files from
 level L+1 (10 because level-(L+1) is ten times the size of level-L,
 and another two at the boundaries since the file ranges at level-L
 will usually not be aligned with the file ranges at level-L+1).  The
 compaction will therefore read 26MB and write 26MB.  Assuming a disk
 IO rate of 100MB/s (ballpark range for modern drives), the worst
 compaction cost will be approximately 0.5 second.

 <p>
 If we throttle the background writing to something small, say 10% of
 the full 100MB/s speed, a compaction may take up to 5 seconds.  If the
 user is writing at 10MB/s, we might build up lots of level-0 files
 (~50 to hold the 5*10MB).  This may significantly increase the cost of
 reads due to the overhead of merging more files together on every
 read.

 <p>
 Solution 1: To reduce this problem, we might want to increase the log
 switching threshold when the number of level-0 files is large.  Though
 the downside is that the larger this threshold, the more memory we will
 need to hold the corresponding memtable.

 <p>
 Solution 2: We might want to decrease write rate artificially when the
 number of level-0 files goes up.

 <p>
 Solution 3: We work on reducing the cost of very wide merges.
 Perhaps most of the level-0 files will have their blocks sitting
 uncompressed in the cache and we will only need to worry about the
 O(N) complexity in the merging iterator.

 <h2>Number of files</h2>

 Instead of always making 2MB files, we could make larger files for
 larger levels to reduce the total file count, though at the expense of
 more bursty compactions.  Alternatively, we could shard the set of
 files into multiple directories.

 <p>
 An experiment on an <code>ext3</code> filesystem on Feb 04, 2011 shows
 the following timings to do 100K file opens in directories with
 varying number of files:
 <table class="datatable">
 <tr><th>Files in directory</th><th>Microseconds to open a file</th></tr>
 <tr><td>1000</td><td>9</td>
 <tr><td>10000</td><td>10</td>
 <tr><td>100000</td><td>16</td>
 </table>
 So maybe even the sharding is not necessary on modern filesystems?

 <h1>Recovery</h1>

 <ul>
 <li> Read CURRENT to find name of the latest committed MANIFEST
 <li> Read the named MANIFEST file
 <li> Clean up stale files
 <li> We could open all sstables here, but it is probably better to be lazy...
 <li> Convert log chunk to a new level-0 sstable
 <li> Start directing new writes to a new log file with recovered sequence#
 </ul>

 <h1>Garbage collection of files</h1>

 <code>DeleteObsoleteFiles()</code> is called at the end of every
 compaction and at the end of recovery.  It finds the names of all
 files in the database.  It deletes all log files that are not the
 current log file.  It deletes all table files that are not referenced
 from some level and are not the output of an active compaction.

 </body>
 </html>
	<!DOCTYPE html>
	<html>
	<head>
	<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="doc.css" />
	<title>Leveldb file layout and compactions</title>
	</head>

	<body>

	<h1>Files</h1>

	The implementation of leveldb is similar in spirit to the
	representation of a single
	<a href="http://research.google.com/archive/bigtable.html">
	Bigtable tablet (section 5.3)</a>.
	However the organization of the files that make up the representation
	is somewhat different and is explained below.

	<p>
	Each database is represented by a set of files stored in a directory.
	There are several different types of files as documented below:
	<p>
	<h2>Log files</h2>
	<p>
	A log file (*.log) stores a sequence of recent updates. Each update
	is appended to the current log file. When the log file reaches a
	pre-determined size (approximately 4MB by default), it is converted
	to a sorted table (see below) and a new log file is created for future
	updates.
	<p>
	A copy of the current log file is kept in an in-memory structure (the
	<code>memtable</code>). This copy is consulted on every read so that read
	operations reflect all logged updates.
	<p>
	<h2>Sorted tables</h2>
	<p>
	A sorted table (*.sst) stores a sequence of entries sorted by key.
	Each entry is either a value for the key, or a deletion marker for the
	key. (Deletion markers are kept around to hide obsolete values
	present in older sorted tables).
	<p>
	The set of sorted tables are organized into a sequence of levels. The
	sorted table generated from a log file is placed in a special <code>young</code>
	level (also called level-0). When the number of young files exceeds a
	certain threshold (currently four), all of the young files are merged
	together with all of the overlapping level-1 files to produce a
	sequence of new level-1 files (we create a new level-1 file for every
	2MB of data.)
	<p>
	Files in the young level may contain overlapping keys. However files
	in other levels have distinct non-overlapping key ranges. Consider
	level number L where L >= 1. When the combined size of files in
	level-L exceeds (10^L) MB (i.e., 10MB for level-1, 100MB for level-2,
	...), one file in level-L, and all of the overlapping files in
	level-(L+1) are merged to form a set of new files for level-(L+1).
	These merges have the effect of gradually migrating new updates from
	the young level to the largest level using only bulk reads and writes
	(i.e., minimizing expensive seeks).

	<h2>Manifest</h2>
	<p>
	A MANIFEST file lists the set of sorted tables that make up each
	level, the corresponding key ranges, and other important metadata.
	A new MANIFEST file (with a new number embedded in the file name)
	is created whenever the database is reopened. The MANIFEST file is
	formatted as a log, and changes made to the serving state (as files
	are added or removed) are appended to this log.
	<p>
	<h2>Current</h2>
	<p>
	CURRENT is a simple text file that contains the name of the latest
	MANIFEST file.
	<p>
	<h2>Info logs</h2>
	<p>
	Informational messages are printed to files named LOG and LOG.old.
	<p>
	<h2>Others</h2>
	<p>
	Other files used for miscellaneous purposes may also be present
	(LOCK, *.dbtmp).

	<h1>Level 0</h1>
	When the log file grows above a certain size (1MB by default):
	<ul>
	<li>Create a brand new memtable and log file and direct future updates here
	<li>In the background:
	<ul>
	<li>Write the contents of the previous memtable to an sstable
	<li>Discard the memtable
	<li>Delete the old log file and the old memtable
	<li>Add the new sstable to the young (level-0) level.
	</ul>
	</ul>

	<h1>Compactions</h1>

	<p>
	When the size of level L exceeds its limit, we compact it in a
	background thread. The compaction picks a file from level L and all
	overlapping files from the next level L+1. Note that if a level-L
	file overlaps only part of a level-(L+1) file, the entire file at
	level-(L+1) is used as an input to the compaction and will be
	discarded after the compaction. Aside: because level-0 is special
	(files in it may overlap each other), we treat compactions from
	level-0 to level-1 specially: a level-0 compaction may pick more than
	one level-0 file in case some of these files overlap each other.

	<p>
	A compaction merges the contents of the picked files to produce a
	sequence of level-(L+1) files. We switch to producing a new
	level-(L+1) file after the current output file has reached the target
	file size (2MB). We also switch to a new output file when the key
	range of the current output file has grown enough to overlap more than
	ten level-(L+2) files. This last rule ensures that a later compaction
	of a level-(L+1) file will not pick up too much data from level-(L+2).

	<p>
	The old files are discarded and the new files are added to the serving
	state.

	<p>
	Compactions for a particular level rotate through the key space. In
	more detail, for each level L, we remember the ending key of the last
	compaction at level L. The next compaction for level L will pick the
	first file that starts after this key (wrapping around to the
	beginning of the key space if there is no such file).

	<p>
	Compactions drop overwritten values. They also drop deletion markers
	if there are no higher numbered levels that contain a file whose range
	overlaps the current key.

	<h2>Timing</h2>

	Level-0 compactions will read up to four 1MB files from level-0, and
	at worst all the level-1 files (10MB). I.e., we will read 14MB and
	write 14MB.

	<p>
	Other than the special level-0 compactions, we will pick one 2MB file
	from level L. In the worst case, this will overlap ~ 12 files from
	level L+1 (10 because level-(L+1) is ten times the size of level-L,
	and another two at the boundaries since the file ranges at level-L
	will usually not be aligned with the file ranges at level-L+1). The
	compaction will therefore read 26MB and write 26MB. Assuming a disk
	IO rate of 100MB/s (ballpark range for modern drives), the worst
	compaction cost will be approximately 0.5 second.

	<p>
	If we throttle the background writing to something small, say 10% of
	the full 100MB/s speed, a compaction may take up to 5 seconds. If the
	user is writing at 10MB/s, we might build up lots of level-0 files
	(~50 to hold the 5*10MB). This may significantly increase the cost of
	reads due to the overhead of merging more files together on every
	read.

	<p>
	Solution 1: To reduce this problem, we might want to increase the log
	switching threshold when the number of level-0 files is large. Though
	the downside is that the larger this threshold, the more memory we will
	need to hold the corresponding memtable.

	<p>
	Solution 2: We might want to decrease write rate artificially when the
	number of level-0 files goes up.

	<p>
	Solution 3: We work on reducing the cost of very wide merges.
	Perhaps most of the level-0 files will have their blocks sitting
	uncompressed in the cache and we will only need to worry about the
	O(N) complexity in the merging iterator.

	<h2>Number of files</h2>

	Instead of always making 2MB files, we could make larger files for
	larger levels to reduce the total file count, though at the expense of
	more bursty compactions. Alternatively, we could shard the set of
	files into multiple directories.

	<p>
	An experiment on an <code>ext3</code> filesystem on Feb 04, 2011 shows
	the following timings to do 100K file opens in directories with
	varying number of files:
	<table class="datatable">
	<tr><th>Files in directory</th><th>Microseconds to open a file</th></tr>
	<tr><td>1000</td><td>9</td>
	<tr><td>10000</td><td>10</td>
	<tr><td>100000</td><td>16</td>
	</table>
	So maybe even the sharding is not necessary on modern filesystems?

	<h1>Recovery</h1>

	<ul>
	<li> Read CURRENT to find name of the latest committed MANIFEST
	<li> Read the named MANIFEST file
	<li> Clean up stale files
	<li> We could open all sstables here, but it is probably better to be lazy...
	<li> Convert log chunk to a new level-0 sstable
	<li> Start directing new writes to a new log file with recovered sequence#
	</ul>

	<h1>Garbage collection of files</h1>

	<code>DeleteObsoleteFiles()</code> is called at the end of every
	compaction and at the end of recovery. It finds the names of all
	files in the database. It deletes all log files that are not the
	current log file. It deletes all table files that are not referenced
	from some level and are not the output of an active compaction.

	</body>
	</html>